k. Mongols [AOK6K]

Learn about the history of the Mongols in Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition, from their nomadic origins to Genghis Khan's conquests.

The Mongols originated as nomads from the steppes of Central Asia, known for fierce inter-clan warfare over pasturelands and for raiding more developed civilizations. In the early thirteenth century, these clans united, initiating a vast campaign of foreign conquest that established one of the largest empires the world has ever seen, stretching from Korea across Asia into European Russia.

The heartland of the Mongol tribes was the plains south of Lake Baikal in modern Mongolia. At its zenith, their empire encompassed Korea, much of Asia, European Russia to the Baltic Sea coast, Asia Minor, modern Iraq, modern Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tibet, parts of India and Burma, all of China, and portions of Vietnam.

Temuchin, later known as Genghis Khan ("mighty ruler"), unified the Mongol clans in the early thirteenth century with an ambition to rule lands between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Beginning with an estimated 25,000 warriors, he expanded his forces by subjugating other nomads and launched an attack on northern China in 1211, capturing Beijing in 1215 after a campaign that may have resulted in 30 million Chinese lives lost. The Mongols then advanced west, capturing the Silk Road trading city of Bukhara in 1220, which was burned and its inhabitants murdered.

Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his son Ogedei continued the conquest of northern China and pushed into Europe, destroying Kiev in 1240 and advancing into Hungary. Ogedei's death in 1241 during a campaign caused the army to withdraw to address succession issues, sparing Europe as Mongol rulers shifted focus to the Middle East and southern China. Hulagu, a grandson of Genghis, eradicated the Muslim "Assassins" and captured Baghdad in 1258, resulting in the murder of approximately 100,000 inhabitants. In 1260, an Egyptian Mameluke army defeated the Mongols in present-day Israel, halting their threat to Islam.

Kublai Khan, another grandson of Genghis, completed the conquest of China in 1279, establishing the Yuan dynasty. Failed invasions of Japan occurred in 1274 and 1281. Kublai Khan died in China in 1294, marking the beginning of Mongol power's decline. The Yuan dynasty in China was overthrown in favor of the Ming in 1368.

In the 1370s, Timur Leng (Tamerlane), a Turkish-Mongol warrior claiming descent from Genghis Khan, rose to leadership in Central Asia aiming to restore the Mongol Empire. With an army of around 100,000 horsemen, he campaigned through Russia and Persia, primarily against Muslim states. In 1398, he sacked Delhi, causing 100,000 inhabitants to be murdered. He then defeated an Egyptian Mameluke army in Syria and, in 1402, defeated a large Ottoman Turk army near modern Ankara. Timur died in 1405 while marching towards China. His focus on capturing wealth and wholesale slaughter, without establishing stable governments, led to the rapid disintegration of his vast realm after his death.

The Mongol Army

The Mongols were nomadic herders and hunters who spent their lives on horseback. They learned to ride and use weapons, particularly the composite bow, from a young age. Every able-bodied male under 60 was expected to participate in hunting and warfare, meaning the armies of united Mongol tribes comprised the entire adult male population.

They adhered to a strict code of discipline, with booty held collectively. Abandoning a comrade in battle was punishable by death. This discipline, combined with strong leadership, intelligence gathering, and organization, transformed the Mongol cavalry from a swarm into a formidable army.

The Mongol army was structured using a decimal system, with units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 men, though these numbers were often reduced by casualties and attrition. The 10,000-man unit functioned as a major fighting force, akin to a modern division, capable of independent sustained combat. Soldiers felt the strongest affiliation with their 1,000-man unit, comparable to a modern regiment. Original Mongol tribes maintained their own 1,000-man units, while conquered peoples like the Tatars and Merkits were integrated into existing units to prevent organized resistance.

Genghis Khan established a personal guard of 10,000 men, recruited across tribal lines, which served as an honorable hostage system in its early stages and grew into the ruling class of the expanding empire.

Initially, Mongol soldiers received only booty as pay. Advancement was merit-based. As conquests slowed, a new pay system was implemented, and officers could later pass their positions to their heirs.

Each soldier typically traveled with about five horses, enabling rapid changes and swift movements. No armies before the mechanized forces of the twentieth century could match the Mongols' speed.

The Mongols primarily fought as unarmored light cavalry archers, utilizing the compact composite bow for its impressive range and penetration power. They employed Chinese and Middle Easterners as siege engineers. Infantry, garrison troops, and armored heavy cavalry armed with lances were drawn from conquered populations.

Mongol Tactics

Mongol armies excelled through firepower, rapid mobility, and a fearsome reputation for ruthlessness. Their opponents were significantly slower and more deliberate in their movements.